Table 2: Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression of participation in undeclared work in urban areas.
|
Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
| Gender (Women) |
|
|
|
| Men |
0.588*** (0.082) |
0.643*** (0.083) |
0.643*** (0.083) |
| Age (15-24) |
|
|
|
| 25-39 |
-0.226* (0.123) |
-0.237* (0.129) |
-0.231* (0.129) |
| 40-54 |
-0.614*** (0.135) |
-0.646*** (0.141) |
-0.648*** (0.141) |
| 55+ |
-1.503*** (0.161) |
-1.512*** (0.162) |
-1.520*** (0.162) |
| Marital status (Married/Remarried) |
|
|
|
| Cohabitating |
0.186 (0.127) |
0.152 (0.128) |
0.147 (0.128) |
| Single |
-0.007 (0.141) |
-0.053 (0.141) |
-0.046 (0.141) |
| Divorced/Separated/ Widowed/Other |
0.101 (0.142) |
0.031 (0.143) |
0.029 (0.143) |
| Number of persons 15+ years in household (One) |
|
|
| Two |
-0.392*** (0.126) |
-0.371*** (0.126) |
-0.366*** (0.126) |
| Three |
-0.351** (0.141) |
-0.328** (0.142) |
-0.322** (0.142) |
| Four and more |
-0.366** (0.156) |
-0.331** (0.157) |
-0.318** (0.157) |
| Children (Not having children) |
|
|
|
| Having children |
-0.036 (0.101) |
-0.095 (0.101) |
-0.105 (0.102) |
| Tax morality |
0.368*** (0.021) |
0.358*** (0.021) |
0.357*** (0.021) |
| Employment (Unemployed) |
|
|
|
| Employed |
|
-0.061 (0.094) |
-0.063 (0.094) |
| Difficulty paying bills (Most of the time) |
|
|
| From time to time |
|
-0.606*** (0.112) |
-0.622*** (0.112) |
| Almost never/never |
|
-1.019*** (0.115) |
-1.049*** (0.115) |
| Urban area (Small/ middle sized town) |
|
|
| Large town |
|
|
-0.062 (0.083) |
| Region (Western Europe) |
|
|
|
| Southern Europe |
|
|
-0.682** (0.316) |
| East-Central Europe |
|
|
0.118 (0.254) |
| Nordic Nations |
|
|
0.803** (0.368) |
| Constant |
-3.687*** (0.241) |
-2.942*** (0.263) |
-2.887*** (0.302) |
| Observations |
16,226 |
16,226 |
16,226 |
| Number of groups |
28 |
28 |
28 |
| Random-effects Parameters |
|
|
|
| Identity: Country |
|
|
|
| Variance (constant) |
0.298*** |
0.410*** |
0.247*** |
Notes:*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1; Standard errors in parentheses. All coefficients are compared to the benchmark category, shown in brackets.